Phonology Explained
How Languages Organise Sounds
Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies how sounds are organised within specific languages. While phonetics deals with the physical properties of sounds, phonology focuses on how these sounds are understood and processed by speakers. It examines how sounds function within a language to create meaning and how they interact according to systematic rules.
In this post, we’ll explore the core principles of phonology, covering key concepts like phonemes, allophones, and phonological rules, to build a scientific understanding of how languages structure sound systems.
What Is Phonology?
Phonology investigates how sounds are used to convey meaning in different languages. Every language organises its sounds according to a specific system, and these sounds follow predictable patterns and rules. Phonologists focus on understanding these patterns and how they shape communication.
Unlike phonetics, which looks at the physical properties of sounds (like their acoustic and articulatory characteristics), phonology is concerned with mental representations, how sounds are stored and processed in the brain and how they function in linguistic contexts.
Phonemes: The Building Blocks of Language
The most fundamental concept in phonology is the phoneme. Phonemes are the smallest units of sound that can change the meaning of a word. For example, in English, the sounds /p/ and /b/ are distinct phonemes because they differentiate words like “pat” and “bat.”
Phonemes are abstract units of sound. They represent a group of related sounds that speakers of a language perceive as identical, even though they might be pronounced slightly differently depending on the context. These slight variations are known as allophones.
Allophones: Variations Without Changing Meaning
Allophones are variations of the same phoneme that do not change the meaning of a word. For instance, in English, the /p/ sound is pronounced differently in “pat” (with aspiration) and “spat” (without aspiration). Native speakers usually don’t notice the difference, and the meaning of the word stays the same.
Allophones arise from phonological rules that determine how a phoneme is realised in different phonetic environments. These rules vary from language to language, which is why sounds that are treated as phonemes in one language may be allophones in another.
Phonological Rules
Phonological rules explain how phonemes are realised as actual speech sounds in different contexts. These rules can dictate changes in how sounds are pronounced based on their surrounding sounds or their position in a word.
For example, in English, the plural suffix “s” is pronounced differently depending on the final sound of the noun:
After voiceless sounds (like /t/ in “cats”), it’s pronounced as /s/.
After voiced sounds (like /g/ in “dogs”), it’s pronounced as /z/.
After sibilant sounds (like /ʃ/ in “buses”), it’s pronounced as /ɪz/.
These variations follow regular phonological rules, allowing speakers to apply them unconsciously and consistently.
Syllables and Stress Patterns
Phonology also deals with the structure of syllables and the stress patterns of words. Syllables are the building blocks of words, each consisting of a vowel sound (or vowel-like sound) and possibly consonants. The arrangement of consonants and vowels in syllables follows specific patterns in different languages.
Stress refers to the emphasis placed on certain syllables within a word. For example, in English, the word “photograph” is stressed on the first syllable, while “photography” shifts the stress to the second syllable. Phonologists study these patterns to understand how stress affects word meaning and pronunciation.
Phonotactics: The Rules of Sound Combinations
Every language has its own set of rules for how sounds can be combined. These rules, known as phonotactics, determine which sequences of sounds are permissible in a language. For instance, English allows the consonant cluster /str/ (as in “street”), while other languages may not permit such clusters at all.
Phonotactic rules can explain why certain words or sounds may be challenging for speakers of one language when they try to learn another. For example, Japanese doesn’t allow consonant clusters like /st/ at the beginning of words, which can make English words like “star” difficult for native Japanese speakers to pronounce.
Example: Phonology in English
Let’s look at an example in English to understand how these concepts work together.
Phonemes: /p/ and /b/ are two distinct phonemes in English. The difference between these sounds can change the meaning of a word (e.g., “pat” vs. “bat”).
Allophones: The /p/ sound in “pat” is aspirated (pronounced with a puff of air), while the /p/ in “spat” is unaspirated. These are allophones of the same phoneme, as the difference in pronunciation doesn’t change the meaning of the word.
Phonological Rule: The plural “-s” is pronounced as /s/ in “cats,” /z/ in “dogs,” and /ɪz/ in “buses” based on the preceding sound.
Stress Patterns: as a noun “record” is stressed on the first syllable (“REcord”); its phonetic transcription is /ˈrekɔːd/ in standard British English and /’rekəd/ in standard American English. However, when using “record” as a verb, the stress is on the second syllable (“reCORD”) and is transcribed as /rɪˈkɔːd/ in British English and /rɪˈkɔːrd/ in Amercan English.*
Phonotactics: English allows the consonant cluster /str/ at the beginning of words (as in “street”), but doesn’t allow combinations like /bn/ or /gd/ at the start of words.
The Role of Phonology in Language Learning
Phonology is crucial in language learning, both for first-language acquisition and for learning new languages. Children learn the phonological system of their native language early, often before they fully grasp grammar or vocabulary. Phonology explains why young children might say “wabbit” instead of “rabbit”. They are applying phonological rules that simplify sound combinations until they master the full range of sounds in their language.
For second-language learners, phonology explains why certain sounds or sound combinations are difficult to produce. For instance, Spanish speakers learning English often struggle with the /v/ and /b/ distinction, because these sounds are allophones of the same phoneme in Spanish but distinct phonemes in English.
Phonology is a crucial aspect of linguistics, offering insights into how sounds are organised and structured in different languages. From understanding the basic units of sound (phonemes) to the rules governing sound combinations (phonotactics), phonology provides a framework for studying the mental systems that allow humans to communicate effectively. In the next article, we’ll explore how phonology intersects with social and philosophical questions about language, identity, and communication.
it’s important to recognise that there is no single “British” or “American” accent. Both British and American English contain numerous regional and social varieties, and phonological differences can vary significantly across these varieties. Linguists emphasise that these transcriptions reflect just one version of each accent.
Next: Why Phonology Matters: Sound, Identity, and Thought
©Antoine Decressac — 2024
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If you’re interested in learning more about phonology, here are some books that provide a solid introduction:
An Introduction to Language by Nina Hyams, Victoria Fromkin, Robert Rodman This book covers phonology as part of a broader introduction to linguistics.
Phonology: A cognitive grammar introduction: 3 (Cognitive Linguistics in Practice) by Geoffrey S. Nathan This textbook introduces the reader to the field of phonology, from allophones to faithfulness and exemplars
Phonology in Generative Grammar by Michael Kenstowicz A more advanced, in-depth guide for those wanting to explore phonology further.